Changes in Composition of the International Working Class
Some interesting findings from a new report of the UN’s International Labour Office
Article (with 2 Tables) by Michael Pröbsting, International Secretary of the Revolutionary Communist International Tendency (RCIT), 30 June 2021, www.thecommunists.net
1) Contrary to various post-modernist theoreticians, the international working class continues to grow.
2) Global capitalist production, and therefore the world proletariat, has shifted during the past half century from the old imperialist metropolises (i.e., North America, Western Europe and Japan) to the semi-colonial countries in the South as well as to rising imperialist powers like China.
3) More concretely, the focus of the world proletariat has shifted to the region of East, South-East and South Asia.
4) The mass of the working class are not highly skilled laborers but rather low and medium skilled workers.
5) These developments have important consequences for the strategy of revolutionaries. They must be reflected in the politics of the international workers organizations, i.e. they must have a specific focus to the liberation struggles in the South as well China.
6) Related to this, the building of a new Revolutionary World Party must have its focus in these regions (and not in Western Europe and North America). [1]
We have elaborated our analysis in much detail in several RCIT books and pamphlets. [2] At this point we do not intend to repeat our lengthy analysis. Rather, we want to draw attention to the latest report of the UN’s International Labour Office which strongly confirms the Marxist analysis.
Before doing so, we need to repeat that the bourgeois categories of the ILO (wage laborers, labor force, etc.) are not identical with the Marxist definition of the working class. Neither do they recognize the existence of specific strata within the working class like the labor aristocracy. In addition, categories like “High-Income Countries“, “Low-Income Countries”, etc. are not identical with the Marxist categories of imperialist and semi-colonial countries. [3] For a more detailed explanation of these problems, we refer to other works. [4] Nevertheless, as we have explained in these works, the ILO categories are despite their weaknesses useful as an approximation to the developments of the global proletariat and its composition.
So let us turn to summarizing the most important findings of the latest ILO report.
First, the report shows the ongoing growth of the international working class – both in absolute figures as well as a share of the labor force. As Table 1 below demonstrates, the share of wage laborers among the labor force grew from 45.7% (2000) to 53.3% (2020).
There are 1,701 million wage laborers today in absolute numbers. Of these, 509 million live in the old imperialist countries (North America, Western Europe and Japan). They represent a share of 29.9% which consequentially means that 70.1% of the world working class live in the South and China. In fact, this share is even larger as a substantial part (approx. 1/3) of the wage laborers in the old imperialist countries belong the salaried middle layer and not to the proletariat. This becomes evident if we look at the shift within the global industrial proletariat. While 30.2% of manufacturing workers lived in the old imperialist countries in 1990, this share dropped to 17.5% in 2018. [5]
The figures of the new ILO report also underline the RCIT’ thesis of the strategic importance of the proletariat in East and South Asia. Today, 866 million – this means 50,1% of all wage laborers on this planet – live in this region. (See Table 1)
The ILO report also shows the dramatic consequences of the Great Depression beginning in late 2019 for the working class. [6] While the numbers both of the global labor force as well as of the wage laborers are continuously growing, both categories suffered a massive decline in the year 2020. From 2019 to 2020, i.e. within a single year, the average number of total weekly hours worked declined from 2,850 to 2,617. Likewise, the total labor force was reduced from 3,490 million to 3,409 million, i.e. by 81 million. The number of wage laborers also declined from 1,768 million to 1,701 million, i.e. by 67 million.
Finally, the ILO report also demonstrates the fact that the large majority of the world report are low- and medium-skilled laborers. Their share among the global labor force is 78.9%. (See Table 2) They constitute a majority even in the old imperialist countries (56.8%). [7]
We conclude this article by emphasizing once more that the RCIT considers it as crucial for revolutionaries to pay particular attention to the working class in the South and the East, i.e. outside of the old imperialist states in Western Europe, North America and Japan. The huge weight of the Southern proletariat must be reflected not only in their massive participation in international workers’ organizations, but also in the leaderships of these forces. And questions of particular importance for the Southern working class – their super-exploitation, their national liberation struggles against imperialism, etc. – must play a central role in the organizations’ propagandistic and practical work. [8]
Table 1. Composition of the Global Working Class, 2000 and 2020 [9]
Wage and salaried Employment Wage Laborers
Employment (Share) (in Millions) (in Millions)
2000 2020 2020 2020
World 45.7 53.3 3189.0 1701.0
Low-Income Countries 15.8 20.1 253.0 50.0
Lower-Middle-Income Countries 26.2 34.0 1071.0 343.0
Upper-Middle-Income Countries 47.7 59.1 1449.0 800.0
High-Income Countries 84.4 87.6 622.0 509.0
Northern Africa 57.0 62.7 71.9 39.0
Arab States 73.2 81.8 58.2 43.0
Sub-Saharan Africa 19.6 24.3 416.0 95.0
Latin America & Caribbean 60.0 61.9 292.0 162.0
Eastern Asia 43.4 58.7 923.0 516.0
South-Eastern Asia & Pacific 36.4 51.8 350.0 175.0
Southern Asia 20.3 27.9 674.0 175.0
Central & Western Asia 51.5 68.0 75.0 46.0
Northern, Southern &
Western Europe 83.3 85.2 221.0 174.0
Eastern Europe 83.9 87.5 141.5 117.0
Central & Northern America 91.6 92.8 186.0 158.0
Table 2. Occupations by Skill, Share of Laborers, 2005 and 2020 [10]
(in percent)
2005 2020
Share of occupations requiring low skill 44.2 37.6
Share of occupations requiring medium skill 38.5 41.3
Share of occupations requiring high skill 17.3 21.1
[1] We have dealt with the consequences of these issues for revolutionary party building in various works. See e.g. Michael Pröbsting: Building the Revolutionary Party in Theory and Practice. Looking Back and Ahead after 25 Years of Organized Struggle for Bolshevism, RCIT Books, Vienna 2014
[2] The most comprehensive elaboration of the RCIT’s analysis of the changes in the world proletariat and the resulting consequences for the revolutionary strategy can be seen in Michael Pröbsting: The Great Robbery of the South. Continuity and Changes in the Super-Exploitation of the Semi-Colonial World by Monopoly Capital Consequences for the Marxist Theory of Imperialism, 2013, http://www.great-robbery-of-the-south.net/. See also chapter III in Michael Pröbsting: Marxism and the United Front Tactic Today. The Struggle for Proletarian Hegemony in the Liberation Movement in Semi-Colonial and Imperialist Countries in the present Period, RCIT Books, Vienna 2016, https://www.thecommunists.net/theory/bookunited-front/. Furthermore we refer to the following articles by the same author: On the Composition of the International Working Class. A new report of the UN’s International Labour Office with interesting figures about social developments between 2000 and 2018, 25 February 2020, https://www.thecommunists.net/theory/on-the-composition-of-the-international-working-class/; Once again on the Composition of the International Working Class. Some additional information which confirm the shift away from the old imperialist countries towards the South as well as China, 10 March 2020, https://www.thecommunists.net/theory/once-again-on-the-composition-of-the-international-working-class/
[3] Here are the countries as categorized by the ILO (See: ILO: World Employment Social Outlook, Trends 2021, Geneva 2021, p. 118).
High-income countries: Australia, Austria, Bahamas, Bahrain, Barbados, Belgium, Brunei Darussalam, Canada, Channel Islands, Chile, Croatia, Cyprus, Czechia, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, French Polynesia, Germany, Greece, Guam, Hong Kong, China, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Japan, Republic of Korea, Kuwait, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Macau, China, Malta, Mauritius, Netherlands, New Caledonia, New Zealand, Norway, Oman, Panama, Poland, Portugal, Puerto Rico, Qatar, Romania, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Taiwan, China, Trinidad and Tobago, United Arab Emirates, United Kingdom
Upper-middle-income countries: Albania, Algeria, Argentina, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Belize, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Botswana, Brazil, Bulgaria, China, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Equatorial Guinea, Fiji, Gabon, Georgia, Guatemala, Guyana, Islamic Republic of Iran, Iraq, Jamaica, Jordan, Kazakhstan, Lebanon, Libya, Malaysia, Maldives, Mexico, Montenegro, Namibia, North Macedonia, Paraguay, Peru, Russian Federation, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Samoa, Serbia, South Africa, Sri Lanka, Suriname, Thailand, Tonga, Turkey, Turkmenistan, Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela
Lower-middle-income countries: Angola, Bangladesh, Benin, Bhutan, Plurinational State of Bolivia, Cambodia, Cameroon, Cabo Verde, Comoros, Congo, Côte d’Ivoire, Djibouti, Egypt, El Salvador, Eswatini, Ghana, Honduras, India, Indonesia, Kenya, Kyrgyzstan, People’s Democratic Republic Lao, Lesotho, Mauritania, Moldova, Republic of, Mongolia, Morocco, Myanmar, Nepal, Nicaragua, Nigeria, Occupied Palestinian Territory, Pakistan, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Sao Tome and Principe, Senegal, Solomon Islands, United Republic of Tanzania, Timor-Leste, Tunisia, Ukraine, Uzbekistan, Vanuatu, Viet Nam, Western Sahara, Zambia, Zimbabwe
Low-income countries: Afghanistan, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Central African Republic, Chad, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Gambia, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Haiti, Democratic People’s Republic of Korea, Liberia, Madagascar, Malawi, Mali, Mozambique, Niger, Rwanda, Sierra Leone, Somalia, South Sudan, Sudan, Syrian Arab Republic, Tajikistan, Togo, Uganda, Yemen, United States, United States Virgin Islands, Uruguay
[4] See on this the above-mentioned article: On the Composition of the International Working Class
[5] See on this the above-mentioned article: Once again on the Composition of the International Working Class
[6] See on this e.g. Michael Pröbsting: No, the Corona Virus is not the Main Cause of the Global Economic Slump! Bourgeois Media Officially Recognize the Beginning of another Great Recession, 3 March 2020, https://www.thecommunists.net/worldwide/global/corona-virus-is-not-themain-cause-of-global-economic-slump/; Chapter “Another Great Recession has begun“ in RCIT: World Perspectives 2020: A Pre-Revolutionary Global Situation. Theses on the World Situation, the Perspectives for Class Struggle and the Tasks of Revolutionaries, 8 February 2020, https://www.thecommunists.net/theory/world-perspectives-2020/; Michael Pröbsting: Another Great Recession of the Capitalist World Economy Has Begun. The economic crisis is an important factor in the current dramatic shift in the world situation, 19 October 2019, https://www.thecommunists.net/worldwide/global/another-great-recession-of-the-capitalist-world-economy-hasbegun/; by the same author: The Next Looming Great Recession. Observations on the Latest Stock Market Slump and the Structural Crisis of the Capitalist World Economy, 12 October 2018, https://www.thecommunists.net/theory/the-next-looming-great-recession/
[7] ILO: World Employment Social Outlook, Trends 2021, Geneva 2021, p. 136
[8] See on this Revolutionary Communist International Tendency (RCIT): The Revolutionary Communist Manifesto, published in 2012, pp. 28-30; online on the RCIT website at www.thecommunists.net/rcit-manifesto
[9] Figures for the year 2000 are taken from: ILO: World Employment Social Outlook, Trends 2019, Geneva 2019, pp. 84-115; Figures for the year 2020 are taken from: ILO: World Employment Social Outlook, Trends 2021, Geneva 2021, pp. 128-161. The ILO report from 2019 did not only include the figures for wage laborers but also for “own-account employment” and “contributing employment”. These figures are relevant to assess the number of peasants as well as the urban poor. Unfortunately, the 2021 report does no longer list these categories. Hence, while we reported the figures for these categories in our last article on the composition of the international working class, we can no longer do so here.
[10] ILO: World Employment Social Outlook, Trends 2021, Geneva 2021, p. 128
세계 노동자계급 구성 변화
최근 ILO 보고서의 몇 가지 흥미로운 결론들
미하엘 프뢰브스팅, 혁명적 공산주의인터내셔널 동맹 (RCIT) 국제서기, 2021년 6월 30일
전 세계적으로 노동자계급은 그 구성에서 중요한 변화를 겪어 왔다. 혁명적 공산주의인터내셔널 동맹 (RCIT)은 그 동안 이 변화를 규명하고 계속해서 지적해왔는데, RCIT의 주요 테제를 몇 문장으로 요약하면 다음과 같다.
1) 각종 포스트모더니즘 이론가들의 주장과는 반대로, 국제 노동자계급은 수적으로 계속 증대하고 있다.
2) 글로벌 자본주의 생산은, 그리고 그에 따라 세계 프롤레타리아트도 지난 반세기 동안 기존 제국주의 중심부 (즉 북미, 서유럽, 일본)에서 남반구의 반식민지 나라들과 중국 등 신흥 제국주의 국가로 그 중심이 이동했다.
3) 좀 더 구체적으로는 세계 프롤레타리아트의 초점이 동아시아, 동남아시아, 남아시아 지역으로 옮겨갔다.
4) 노동자계급 ‘대중’은 고숙련 노동자들이 아니라 중·저숙련 노동자들이다.
5) 이러한 추이는 혁명가들의 전략에 중요한 영향을 미친다. 그리고 국제 노동자 조직들의 정치에 이 추이가 반영되어야 한다. 즉 특별히 남반구와 중국에서의 해방투쟁에 초점을 두어야 한다는 것이다.
6) 이와 관련하여 새로운 혁명적 세계당 건설은 이들 지역 (서유럽과 북미가 아니라)에 그 중심을 두어야 한다.[1]
우리는 몇몇 RCIT 책자와 팜플렛에서 이 문제에 대해 매우 세부적으로까지 분석·평가한 바 있다.[2] 여기서 다시 우리의 긴 분석을 반복하지는 않겠다. 다만 맑스주의적 분석을 강력하게 확인시켜주는 최근 ILO (국제노동기구) 보고서에 독자들의 주의를 환기시키고자 한다.
그 전에 우리는, ILO의 부르주아적 범주들 (임금노동자, 노동인력 등)은 맑스주의적 노동자계급 정의와 동일하지 않다는 점을 거듭 강조할 필요가 있다. 또 ILO 범주들에서는 노동귀족층 같은 노동자계급 내 특정 층의 존재도 인정하지 않는다. 나아가 "고소득국", "저소득국" 등과 같은 범주도 제국주의 나라와 반식민지 나라라는 맑스주의적 범주와 동일하지 않다.[3] 이러한 문제들에 대한 보다 상세한 설명으로는, 우리의 다른 문서들을 참조할 것을 권한다.[4] 우리가 이 문서들에서 설명했듯이, 그 취약점들에도 불구하고 ILO 범주는 세계 프롤레타리아트와 그 구성의 변화 추이를 보여주는 근사치로서 유용한 면이 있다.
이제 최신 ILO 보고서의 주요 결론들을 요약해 보자.
첫째, 보고서는 국제 노동자계급의 지속적인 수적 증가를 보여주는데, 이는 절대 수치에서뿐만 아니라 전체 노동인력 내 비중으로도 그러하다. 아래 표 1에서 볼 수 있듯이, 전체 노동인력 중 임금노동자의 비율은 45.7%(2000년)에서 53.3%(2020년)로 증가하였다.
오늘 절대적인 숫자로 17억 1백만 명의 임금노동자가 존재한다. 이 가운데 5억 9백만 명 (29.9%)이 기존 제국주의 나라들 (북미, 서유럽, 일본)에 살고 있다. 이는 세계 노동자계급의 70.1%가 남반구와 중국 등에 살고 있음을 의미한다. 그런데 실제로는 이 비율보다도 훨씬 더 크다. 왜냐하면 기존 제국주의 나라들의 임금노동자 상당 부분 (약 1/3)이 프롤레타리아트가 아닌 봉급생활자 중간층에 속하기 때문이다. 세계 산업 프롤레타리아트 내의 변동을 보면 이 점 분명해진다. 1990년에는 전 세계 제조업 노동자의 30.2%가 기존 제국주의 나라들에서 살았지만, 2018년에는 이 비율이 17.5%로 떨어진다.[5]
새 ILO 보고서의 수치는 또한 동아시아 · 남아시아 프롤레타리아트의 전략적 중요성에 대한 RCIT 테제를 확인시켜준다. 오늘, 지구상의 전체 임금 노동자의 50.1%인 8억 6천 6백만 명이 이 지역에 살고 있다.(표1 참조).
또 ILO 보고서는 2019년 후반에 시작된 대공황이 노동자계급에 미친 극적인 결과도 보여준다.[6] 전 세계 노동인력과 임금노동자 모두 수적으로 지속적인 증가 추세를 보여 왔는데, 2020년에는 두 범주 모두 큰 감축을 맞았다. 2019년부터 2020년까지, 즉 1년도 안 되어 주당 평균근로시간이 2,850분에서 2,617분으로 감소했다. 마찬가지로, 총 노동인력도 34억 9천만 명에서 34억 9백만 명으로 8,100만 명 감소했다. 임금노동자 수도 17억 6천 8백만 명에서 17억 1백만 명으로 6,700만 명 감소했다.
마지막으로, ILO 보고서는 세계 프롤레타리아트의 대다수가 중·저숙련 노동자들이라는 사실도 보여준다. 이 중·저숙련 노동자가 세계 노동인력에서 차지하는 비중은 78.9% (표 2 참조)로 기존 제국주의 나라들에서도 다수(56.8%)를 점한다.[7]
다시 한 번 강조하건대, RCIT는 혁명가들이 남반구와 동아시아의 ㅡ 즉 서유럽·북미·일본 바깥의 ㅡ 노동자계급에 특별히 주의를 기울이는 것이 중요하다고 본다. 남반구 프롤레타리아가 차지하는 거대한 비중은 그들이 국제 노동자 조직들에 대거 참가하는 것으로, 그리고 그뿐만 아니라 조직 지도부에도 참가하는 것으로 나타나고 있다. 이 비중은 향후 의식적으로 지도부 구성에 반영되어야 한다. 그리고 남반구 노동자계급한테 특별히 중요성을 지니는 문제들 ㅡ 그들에 대한 초과착취, 제국주의에 대항하는 그들의 민족해방 투쟁 등 ㅡ 이 조직의 선전 및 실천 사업에서 중심 지위를 점해야 한다.[8]
표 1. 세계 노동자계급 구성, 2000년 및 2020년 [9]
임금노동자 비율 피고용자 임금노동자
(전체 노동인력 대비) (임금노동자+봉급생활자)
2000년 2020년 2020년 2020년
세계 45.7% 53.3% 31억8900만 명 17억100만 명
저소득국 15.8 20.1 2억5300만 5천만
중하위소득국 26.2 34.0 10억7100만 3억4300만
중상위소득국 47.7 59.1 14억4900만 8억
고소득국 84.4 87.6 6억2200만 5억900만
북아프리카 57.0 62.7 7190만 3900만
아랍 국가 73.2 81.8 5820만 4300만
사하라 이남
아프리카 19.6 24.3 4억1600만 9500만
라틴 아메리카
&카리브해 지역 60.0 61.9 2억9200만 1억6200만
동아시아 43.4 58.7 9억2300만 5억1600만
동남아시아
& 태평양 36.4 51.8 3억5000만 1억7500만
남아시아 20.3 27.9 6억7400만 1억7500만
중앙아시아
및 서아시아 51.5 68.0 7500만 4600만
북·남·서 유럽 83.3 85.2 2억2100만 1억7400만
동유럽 83.9 87.5 1억4150만 1억1700만
북중미 91.6 92.8 1억8600만 1억5800만
표 2. 숙련별 노동자 비율, 2005년 및 2020년 [10]
2005년 2020년
저숙련을 요하는 직업 비율 44.2% 37.6%
중숙련을 요하는 직업 비율 38.5 41.3
고숙련을 요하는 직업 비율 17.3 21.1
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[1] 우리는 이 문제들이 혁명당 건설에 미치는 결과를 여러 문서들에서 다룬 바 있다. 다음을 보라. Michael Pröbsting: Building the Revolutionary Party in Theory and Practice. Looking Back and Ahead after 25 Years of Organized Struggle for Bolshevism, RCIT Books, Vienna 2014
[2] 세계 프롤레타리아트 내 변화와 이것이 혁명 전략에 미치는 결과에 대한 RCIT 분석을 가장 포괄적으로 설명한 것을 다음 책자에서 볼 수 있다. Michael Pröbsting: The Great Robbery of the South. Continuity and Changes in the Super-Exploitation of the Semi-Colonial World by Monopoly Capital Consequences for the Marxist Theory of Imperialism, 2013, http://www.great-robbery-of-the-south.net/. 다음도 보라. chapter III in Michael Pröbsting: Marxism and the United Front Tactic Today. The Struggle for Proletarian Hegemony in the Liberation Movement in Semi-Colonial and Imperialist Countries in the present Period, RCIT Books, Vienna 2016, https://www.thecommunists.net/theory/bookunited-front/. 또 같은 저자의 다음 글들도 보라. On the Composition of the International Working Class. A new report of the UN’s International Labour Office with interesting figures about social developments between 2000 and 2018, 25 February 2020, https://www.thecommunists.net/theory/on-the-composition-of-the-international-working-class/ [<국제 노동자계급의 구성에 대하여> https://www.thecommunists.net/home/%ED%95%9C%EA%B5%AD%EC%96%B4/composition-of-international-working-class/; Once again on the Composition of the International Working Class. Some additional information which confirm the shift away from the old imperialist countries towards the South as well as China, 10 March 2020, https://www.thecommunists.net/theory/once-again-on-the-composition-of-the-international-working-class/
[3] 다음은 ILO 범주에 따라 구분한 나라들이다. (다음을 보라. ILO: World Employment Social Outlook, Trends 2021, Geneva 2021, p. 118).
고소득국 (High-income countries): Australia, Austria, Bahamas, Bahrain, Barbados, Belgium, Brunei Darussalam, Canada, Channel Islands, Chile, Croatia, Cyprus, Czechia, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, French Polynesia, Germany, Greece, Guam, Hong Kong, China, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Japan, Republic of Korea, Kuwait, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Macau, China, Malta, Mauritius, Netherlands, New Caledonia, New Zealand, Norway, Oman, Panama, Poland, Portugal, Puerto Rico, Qatar, Romania, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Taiwan, China, Trinidad and Tobago, United Arab Emirates, United Kingdom
중상위소득국 (Upper-middle-income countries): Albania, Algeria, Argentina, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Belize, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Botswana, Brazil, Bulgaria, China, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Equatorial Guinea, Fiji, Gabon, Georgia, Guatemala, Guyana, Islamic Republic of Iran, Iraq, Jamaica, Jordan, Kazakhstan, Lebanon, Libya, Malaysia, Maldives, Mexico, Montenegro, Namibia, North Macedonia, Paraguay, Peru, Russian Federation, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Samoa, Serbia, South Africa, Sri Lanka, Suriname, Thailand, Tonga, Turkey, Turkmenistan, Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela
중하위소득국 (Lower-middle-income countries): Angola, Bangladesh, Benin, Bhutan, Plurinational State of Bolivia, Cambodia, Cameroon, Cabo Verde, Comoros, Congo, Côte d’Ivoire, Djibouti, Egypt, El Salvador, Eswatini, Ghana, Honduras, India, Indonesia, Kenya, Kyrgyzstan, People’s Democratic Republic Lao, Lesotho, Mauritania, Moldova, Republic of, Mongolia, Morocco, Myanmar, Nepal, Nicaragua, Nigeria, Occupied Palestinian Territory, Pakistan, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Sao Tome and Principe, Senegal, Solomon Islands, United Republic of Tanzania, Timor-Leste, Tunisia, Ukraine, Uzbekistan, Vanuatu, Viet Nam, Western Sahara, Zambia, Zimbabwe
저소득국 (Low-income countries): Afghanistan, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Central African Republic, Chad, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Gambia, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Haiti, Democratic People’s Republic of Korea, Liberia, Madagascar, Malawi, Mali, Mozambique, Niger, Rwanda, Sierra Leone, Somalia, South Sudan, Sudan, Syrian Arab Republic, Tajikistan, Togo, Uganda, Yemen, United States, United States Virgin Islands, Uruguay
[4] 이에 대해서는 위에서 언급한 다음 글을 보라. On the Composition of the International Working Class
[5] 이에 대해서는 위에서 언급한 다음 글을 보라. Once again on the Composition of the International Working Class
[6] 이에 대해서는 다음을 보라.. Michael Pröbsting: No, the Corona Virus is not the Main Cause of the Global Economic Slump! Bourgeois Media Officially Recognize the Beginning of another Great Recession, 3 March 2020, https://www.thecommunists.net/worldwide/global/corona-virus-is-not-themain-cause-of-global-economic-slump/ [<코로나바이러스는 세계경제 공황의 주 원인이 아니다!> https://www.thecommunists.net/home/%ED%95%9C%EA%B5%AD%EC%96%B4/corona-virus-is-not-main-cause-of-global-economic-slump/; Chapter “Another Great Recession has begun“ in RCIT: World Perspectives 2020: A Pre-Revolutionary Global Situation. Theses on the World Situation, the Perspectives for Class Struggle and the Tasks of Revolutionaries, 8 February 2020, https://www.thecommunists.net/theory/world-perspectives-2020/ [<2020년 세계 정세전망: 준 혁명적 글로벌 정세> https://www.thecommunists.net/home/%ED%95%9C%EA%B5%AD%EC%96%B4/world-perspectives-2020-a-pre-revolutionary-global-situation/]; Michael Pröbsting: Another Great Recession of the Capitalist World Economy Has Begun. The economic crisis is an important factor in the current dramatic shift in the world situation, 19 October 2019, https://www.thecommunists.net/worldwide/global/another-great-recession-of-the-capitalist-world-economy-hasbegun/ [<자본주의 세계경제: 새로운 대공황이 시작됐다> https://www.thecommunists.net/home/%ED%95%9C%EA%B5%AD%EC%96%B4/another-great-recession-has-begun/]; 같은 저자: The Next Looming Great Recession. Observations on the Latest Stock Market Slump and the Structural Crisis of the Capitalist World Economy, 12 October 2018, https://www.thecommunists.net/theory/the-next-looming-great-recession/
[7] ILO: World Employment Social Outlook, Trends 2021, Geneva 2021, p. 136
[8] 이에 대해서는 다음을 보라. Revolutionary Communist International Tendency (RCIT): The Revolutionary Communist Manifesto, published in 2012, pp. 28-30; online on the RCIT website at www.thecommunists.net/rcit-manifesto
[9] 2000년 수치는 다음에서 인용했다. ILO: World Employment Social Outlook, Trends 2019, Geneva 2019, pp. 84-115; 2020년 수치는 다음에서 인용했다. ILO: World Employment Social Outlook, Trends 2021, Geneva 2021, pp. 128-161. 2019년 ILO 보고서는 임금노동자 수치뿐만 아니라 “자영업”과 “기부 노동” 수치도 포함하고 있다. 이 수치는 농민과 도시빈민 수를 측정하는 데 유용하다. 안타깝게도 2021년 보고서는 더 이상 이들 범주를 목록에 포함시키지 않고 있다. 그리하여 국제 노동자계급 구성에 관한 우리의 마지막 기사에서는 이들 범주에 대한 수치를 보고했지만, 여기서는 더 이상 할 수 없게 됐다.
[10] ILO: World Employment Social Outlook, Trends 2021, Geneva 2021, p. 128